Assessment on Health and Ecosystem Impacts and Costs of Ozone Formation from Passenger Transport in Bangkok Metropolitan Region

Abstract

Using life cycle assessment framework, this research aimed to estimate and compare the emission inventories, health and ecosystem impacts, and costs of ozone formation from passenger road, rail, and water transport in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) in 2022 and in 2027. The study considered passenger cars, public buses, and motorcycles in the road transport; electric trains and rail cars in the public rail transport; and cross river ferries, Chao Phraya boats and Saen Saep canal boats in the public water transport. The ReCiPe 2016 method and Thai Spatially Differentiated Life Cycle Impact Assessment (ThaiSD) method were applied in the impact assessment taking into account health and ecosystem impacts from two ozone precursors - NO_x and NMVOCs. Thai-specific factors were applied for assessing impacts from exhaust emissions in Thailand, while global average factors were applied for assessing impacts from the energy production. In 2022, total NO_x emissions, NMVOCs emissions, health impacts, ecosystem impacts and costs from the passenger transport in BMR were 5.05E+04 tonnes, 2.61E+04 tonnes, 1.21E+03 DALY, 4.95E+00 species·yr and 1.94E+03 million Baht, respectively. In 2027, total NO_x emissions, NMVOCs emissions, health impacts, ecosystem impacts and costs from the passenger transport in BMR will be 5.37E+04 tonnes, 2.91E+04 tonnes, 1.40E+03 DALY, 5.42E+00 species·yr and 2.32E+03 million Baht, respectively. The scenario analysis on the modal shifts from the business-as-usual situations of BMR in 2022 and 2027 to the public transport systems (buses, electric trains and water transport) was performed. Although the modal shifts to the public buses increased NOx emission, they could reduce NMVOCs emissions, health impacts, ecosystem impacts and costs. The modal shifts to the electric trains helped reduce NO_x emissions, NMVOCs emissions, health impacts, ecosystem impacts and costs. The modal shifts to the water transport resulted in increasing the emissions, impacts and costs. This study suggests the promotion of public buses and electric trains and addresses the need to improve public water transport with low emission technologies in the future.