Lithium Iron Phosphate, Nickel Manganese Cobalt, and Sodium-Ion Batteries: A Life Cycle Perspective on Battery Choices for Electric Vehicles
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Abstract
A comparative Life Cycle Assessment was conducted to analyze the environmental impact of three electric vehicle batteries, viz., Sodium-ion Battery (NIB), Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC), and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP). The functional unit of 1 kWh of battery capacity was defined, with a cradle-to-grave boundary including the production of the batteries in China, usage in Thailand, and the recycling of the batteries at the end of the lifecycle in China. The ReCiPe 2016 life cycle assessment method was used considering both the midpoint and endpoint environmental impacts. The findings indicated that the production stage added much to the total environmental burdens, especially on the NMC battery, on account of the intensive mining and refining of nickel, cobalt, and manganese. Conversely, the LFP battery had overall moderate impact in most of the categories, as it is made of simpler materials and does not contain any critical metals. The NIB battery had the lowest impact and had greater chances of future development, bearing in mind the large resources of sodium and less reliance on the scarce minerals. Nevertheless, the use stage in Thailand caused rather similar high emissions for LFP and NIB and lower emission for NMC battery as the electricity mix is dominated by fossil fuels. In general, the paper concludes that LFP is now the most environmentally appropriate choice, and NIB represents a promising alternative that should be optimized. To reduce the environmental impacts of future battery systems, a focus on clean energy, low-impact manufacturing, and effective recycling strategies is essential.
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