The Role of Buddhist Extremists of Rohingya Crisis in Myanmar A Challenge to ASEAN Political and Security Issues?
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Published:
Jun 30, 2019
Keywords:
Buddhist Extremists in Myanmar Rohingya Muslim Inter-Communal Violence Myanmar ASEAN
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Abstract
The aim of this article is to study the role of Buddhism and violence in Myanmar and as one of the significant political tools for Buddhist Extremist group to homogenized Burmese, made Rohingya Muslim ’other’ and ostracized them out of Myanmar. Moreover, these political circumstances are an important one of many factors that lead to inter-communal violence between Burmese Buddhists and Muslim people (especially Rohingya Muslim) that occurred since 2012 and the violence between them still escalated until nowadays.
Furthermore, the conflict between the different ethno-religious groups did not only confine to Myanmar’s boundaries. But also widespread to numerous problem across the ASEAN’s member country. Likewise, these countries cannot solve this problem alone or in a short period of time. These problems and conflicts almost consist of the tension from state and none-state actors in the International arena, Illegal Immigration of Rohingya Muslim that affected all of ASEAN mainland and archipelago countries and the problem from “Boat people” that lead to one of the enormous humanitarian issues in Southeast Asia.
By collecting, researching and determining the formal ASEAN’s mechanisms and cooperation’s during the year 2012 - 2016, researcher found that ASEAN also had progressively enhanced, recognized and raised the issue about the relationship between religion and violence. Notwithstanding any issues’ recognition are still slightly emphasized compared with any other non-traditional security issues, indirectly mention Buddhist as a root cause of the problem, and unfortunately far from any Utilitarianism or Pragmatism.
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References
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20. Harley, T., Mathew, P. (2014). Refugee Protection and Regional Cooperation in Southeast Asia. A Fieldwork Report, The Australian National University March 2014. Canberra: The Australian National University Press
20. Harvey, G. E. (1946). British Rule in Burma: 1824 - 1942. London: Faber and Faber.
21. Hodal, K. (2018, June 15). Buddhist monk uses racism and rumours to spread hatred in Burma. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www. theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/18/buddhist-monk-spreads-hatred-burma.
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31. McCarthy, S. (2008). Losing my Religion? Protest and Political Legitimacy in Burma. Regional Outlook (18), pp. 1 - 15.
32. Press Statement for the 10th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime and Special ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the Rise of Radicalization and Violent Extremism. (2018, July 16). ASEAN. Retrieved from https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/images/ 2015/October/ammtc/Press%20Statement.pdf.
33. Roundtable by RSIS and the Global Movement of Moderates Foundation (GMMF), Malaysia. S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies. (2019, June 18) Retrieved from https://www.rsis.edu.sg/ event/roundtable-by-rsis-and-the-global-movement-of-moderates- foundation-gmmf-malaysia/#.XTQlrMo5qf0
34. Schober, J. (2011). Modern Buddhist Conjunctures in Myanmar: Cultural Narratives, Colonial Legacies, and Civil Society. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.
35. Smith, D. E. (1965). Religion and Politics in Burma. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
36. Smith, M. & Landis, T. (2018, August 26). Policies of Persecution Ending Abusive State Policies Against Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar. Fortify Rights. Retrieved from https://www.fortifyrights.org/downloads/ Policies_of_Persecution_Feb_25_Fortify_Rights.pdf
37. Southwick, K. (2015). Preventing Mass Atrocities against the Stateless Rohingya in Myanmar: A Call for Solutions. Journal of International Affairs, 68(2), p. 137.
38. Spiro, M. E. (1982). Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and its Burmese. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
39. Szep, J. & Marshall, A. (2018, August 24). Special Report: Thailand secretly supplies Myanmar refugees to trafficking rings. Reuters. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-thailand-rohingya-special- report-idUSBRE9B400320131205
40. Taylor, R. H. (2009). The State in Myanmar. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.
41. UNHCR Mid-Year Trends 2015. UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency. (2018, August 23) Retrieved from https://www.unhcr.org/56701b969.pdf #zoom=95.
42. Wade, F. (2017). Myanmar’s Enemy Within: Buddhist Violence and the Making of a Muslim Other. London: ZED Books.
43. Walton, J. M. (2015). Monks in Politics, Monks in the World: Buddhist Activism in Contemporary Myanmar. Social Research, 82(2), pp. 507 - 530.
44. Yutthaworakool, S. (2017). The Politics of Buddhist Nationalism in Myanmar: History, Legitimacy and Democratic Transition. Journal of Social Sciences, 47(2), pp. 133 - 148.
45. Zarni, M. (2013). Buddhist Nationalism in Burma: How Institutionalized Racism led to the Genocide of Rohingya Muslims. New York: Tricycle.
46. 2015 Lankawi Declaration on the Global Movement of Moderates. Centre for International Law. (2019, July 19) Retrieved from https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/formidable/18/2015- Langkawi-Declaration-On-The-Global-Movement-Of-Moderates. pdf
47. 8 dead as Burmese Buddhists, Muslims clash in Indonesia. (2018, August 23). AP News. Retrieved from https://asiancorrespondent.com/2013/ 04/8-dead-as-burmese-buddhists-muslims-clash-in-indonesia/.
2. นินิเมียนต์. (2000). พม่ากับการต่อต้านจักรวรรดินิยมอังกฤษ ค.ศ. 1885 - 1895. กรุงเทพฯ: มูลนิธิโครงการตำราสังคมศาสตร์และมนุษยศาสตร์.
3. ผู้นำมาเลเซียเรียกร้อง ออง ซาน ซู จี ช่วยหยุดยั้งการฆ่าล้างเผ่าพันธุ์โรฮิงญา. (24 สิงหาคม 2561). บีบีซีไทย. สืบค้นจาก https://www.bbc.com/thai/ international-38201062
4. สำนักวิชาการ สำนักงานเลขาธิการสภาผู้แทนราษฎร. (28 สิงหาคม 2561). การละเมิดสิทธิมนุษยชนชาวโรฮิงญาสู่ปัญหาการโยกย้ายถิ่นฐานแบบไม่ปกติข้ามชาติ. สำนักงานเลขาธิการสภาผู้แทนราษฎร. สืบค้นจาก https://library2. parliament.go.th/ejournal/content_af/2558/oct2558-1.pdf
5. เอนกชัย เรืองรัตนากร. (2558). บทบาทของอุดมการณ์ “พุทธศาสนา-ชาตินิยมสุดโต่ง” กับความขัดแย้งระหว่างชาวพุทธยะไข่กับชาวมุสลิมโรฮิงญา. วารสารสังคมศาสตร์ มหาวิทยาลัยนเรศวร, 11(2), น. 73 - 98.
6. Ad Hoc and Inadequate: Thailand’s Treatment of Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Human Rights Watch. (2018, June 15) Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/09/12/ad-hoc-and-inadequate/ thailands-treatment-refugees-and-asylum-seekers.
7. Aljunied, D. (2010). Politics and Religion in Contemporary Burma: Buddhist Monks as Opposition. Politics and Religion in Contemporary Burma 2(1), pp. 37 - 49.
8. ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human Rights. (2018, August 16). Regional MPs lament inaction at Yangon meeting, call for stronger ASEAN response to Rohingya crisis. ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human Rights. Retrieved from https://aseanmp.org/2016/12/20/regional-mps-lament-inaction-call-for-stronger-asean-response-to-rohingya-crisis/.
9. ____________________________________. (2018, August 19). The Rohingya Crisis and the Risk of Atrocities in Myanmar: An ASEAN Challenge and Call to Action. ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human Rights. Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/ resources/The-Rohingya-Crisis-and-the-Risk-of-Atrocities-in-Myanmar- An-ASEAN-Challenge-and-Call-to-Action.pdf
10. ASEAN Political-Security Community Blueprint 2025. (2018, July 18). ASEAN. Retrieved from https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/ ASEAN-APSC-Blueprint-2025.pdf
11. ASEAN’S Concept Paper on Global Movement of Moderates. (2018, August 19). ASEAN. Retrieved from https://www.asean.org/uploads/2012/ 05/Concept%20Paper%20on%20GMM%20-%20FINAL-1%20April% 202012-1740%5B2%5D.pdf
12. Aung-Thwin, M. (1989). Burmese Days. Foreign Affairs, 68(2), pp. 143 - 161.
13. Chair’s Statement of the 18th ASEAN Summit Jakarta, 7 - 8 May 2011. (2018, July 17). ASEAN. Retrieved from https://www.asean.org/storage/ archive/Statement_18th_ASEAN_Summit.pdf
14. Chan, A. (2005). The Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan (Rakhine) State of Burma (Myanmar). SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research, 3(2), pp. 396 - 420.
15. Coclanis, P. A. (2013). Terror in Burma Buddhists vs. Muslims. World Affairs, 92(6), pp. 20 - 32.
16. Corben, R. (2018, August 28). Jakarta Pressing Burma on Rohingya Legal Rights. VOA News. Retrieved from https://www.voanews.com/a/ indonesia-fm-says-jackarta-pressing-burma-on-rohingya-legal-rights/1698656.html.
17. Expert warns of Rohingya genocide. (2018, September 1). Aljazeera. Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com/pressoffice/2013/03/20 133210535530465.html
18. Grill, J., Defronzi, J. (2014). Revolutionary without Borders: Global Revolutionaries, Their Messages and Means. Sage Handbook of Globalization (Steger, M. B., Battersby, P. & Siracusa, J. M., Eds.) London: Sage Publications.
19. R., Bechert, H. (1991). The World of Buddhism: Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture (The Great Civilizations). New York: Thames & Hudson.
20. Harley, T., Mathew, P. (2014). Refugee Protection and Regional Cooperation in Southeast Asia. A Fieldwork Report, The Australian National University March 2014. Canberra: The Australian National University Press
20. Harvey, G. E. (1946). British Rule in Burma: 1824 - 1942. London: Faber and Faber.
21. Hodal, K. (2018, June 15). Buddhist monk uses racism and rumours to spread hatred in Burma. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www. theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/18/buddhist-monk-spreads-hatred-burma.
22. Ibrahim, A. (2016). The Rohingyas: Inside Myanmar's Hidden Genocide. London: Hurst Publishers.
23. Jailed Indonesia cleric threatens Myanmar over Rohingya. RNW Media. (2019, June 21) Retrieved from https://www.rnw.org/archive/jailed-indonesia-cleric-threatens-myanmar-over-rohingya
24. Jerryson, M. (2015). Buddhists and Violence: Historical Continuity/Academic Incongruities. Religion Compass, 9(5), pp. 141 - 150.
25. Joint Communiqué of the 49th ASEAN Foreign Ministers’ Meeting Vientiane, 24 July 2016. (2018, July 16). ASEAN. Retrieved from https://asean.org/storage/2016/07/Joint-Communique-of-the-49th-AMM-ADOPTED.pdf
26. Kimball, C. (2002). When Religion Becomes Evil: Five Warning Signs. New York: Harper.
27. Langkawi Declaration on the Global Movement of Moderates. (2018, August 20). ASEAN. Retrieved from https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/ 2012/05/LANGKAWI-DECLARATION-ON-THE-GLOBAL-MOVEMENT-OF-MODERATES-Final.pdf
28. Lipes, J. (2018, June 13). Rohingya Raised at ASEAN Meeting. Radio Free Asia. Retrieved from https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/ rohingya-07132012163418.html
29. Long, M. K. (2013). Dynamics of State, Sangha and Society in Myanmar: A Closer Look at Rohingya Issue. Asian Journal of Public Affairs, 6(1), pp. 79 - 94.
30. Malaysia PM urges world to act against ‘genocide’ of Myanmar’s Rohingya. The Guardian. (2019, July 19) Retrieved from https://www. theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/04/malaysia-pm-urges-world-to-act-against-genocide-of-myanmars-rohingya.
31. McCarthy, S. (2008). Losing my Religion? Protest and Political Legitimacy in Burma. Regional Outlook (18), pp. 1 - 15.
32. Press Statement for the 10th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime and Special ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the Rise of Radicalization and Violent Extremism. (2018, July 16). ASEAN. Retrieved from https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/images/ 2015/October/ammtc/Press%20Statement.pdf.
33. Roundtable by RSIS and the Global Movement of Moderates Foundation (GMMF), Malaysia. S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies. (2019, June 18) Retrieved from https://www.rsis.edu.sg/ event/roundtable-by-rsis-and-the-global-movement-of-moderates- foundation-gmmf-malaysia/#.XTQlrMo5qf0
34. Schober, J. (2011). Modern Buddhist Conjunctures in Myanmar: Cultural Narratives, Colonial Legacies, and Civil Society. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.
35. Smith, D. E. (1965). Religion and Politics in Burma. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
36. Smith, M. & Landis, T. (2018, August 26). Policies of Persecution Ending Abusive State Policies Against Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar. Fortify Rights. Retrieved from https://www.fortifyrights.org/downloads/ Policies_of_Persecution_Feb_25_Fortify_Rights.pdf
37. Southwick, K. (2015). Preventing Mass Atrocities against the Stateless Rohingya in Myanmar: A Call for Solutions. Journal of International Affairs, 68(2), p. 137.
38. Spiro, M. E. (1982). Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and its Burmese. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
39. Szep, J. & Marshall, A. (2018, August 24). Special Report: Thailand secretly supplies Myanmar refugees to trafficking rings. Reuters. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-thailand-rohingya-special- report-idUSBRE9B400320131205
40. Taylor, R. H. (2009). The State in Myanmar. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.
41. UNHCR Mid-Year Trends 2015. UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency. (2018, August 23) Retrieved from https://www.unhcr.org/56701b969.pdf #zoom=95.
42. Wade, F. (2017). Myanmar’s Enemy Within: Buddhist Violence and the Making of a Muslim Other. London: ZED Books.
43. Walton, J. M. (2015). Monks in Politics, Monks in the World: Buddhist Activism in Contemporary Myanmar. Social Research, 82(2), pp. 507 - 530.
44. Yutthaworakool, S. (2017). The Politics of Buddhist Nationalism in Myanmar: History, Legitimacy and Democratic Transition. Journal of Social Sciences, 47(2), pp. 133 - 148.
45. Zarni, M. (2013). Buddhist Nationalism in Burma: How Institutionalized Racism led to the Genocide of Rohingya Muslims. New York: Tricycle.
46. 2015 Lankawi Declaration on the Global Movement of Moderates. Centre for International Law. (2019, July 19) Retrieved from https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/formidable/18/2015- Langkawi-Declaration-On-The-Global-Movement-Of-Moderates. pdf
47. 8 dead as Burmese Buddhists, Muslims clash in Indonesia. (2018, August 23). AP News. Retrieved from https://asiancorrespondent.com/2013/ 04/8-dead-as-burmese-buddhists-muslims-clash-in-indonesia/.
