Metacognitive Awareness of Reading and Reading Strategy Use by Nonproficient College Readers
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Published:
Apr 20, 2021
Keywords:
Reading strategies Strategy use Second language reading Think-aloud Metacognitive awareness
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Abstract
This research investigated what reading strategies Thai college EFL students who were identified as nonproficient readers are aware of and what reading strategies they use. Data were gathered from a questionnaire, think-aloud and interviews. The analysis identified 3 broad categories of 16 reading strategies employed by the nonproficient readers: text-based strategies, knowledge-based strategies and interactive strategies. Results also showed that the nonproficient readers viewed reading as a decoding process and that they were aware of different reading strategies. However, they could not regulate the strategies to construct meanings from texts effectively and solve reading problems. Their unsuccessful reading was due to the interplay of factors such as a lack of word recognition skills and necessary syntactic knowledge, and ineffective regulation of reading strategies.
Article Details
How to Cite
Adunyarittigun, D. (2021). Metacognitive Awareness of Reading and Reading Strategy Use by Nonproficient College Readers. REFLections, 28(1), 82–106. https://doi.org/10.61508/refl.v28i1.250764
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Research articles
References
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Adunyarittigun, D. (2002). An investigation of factors affecting English language reading success: A case study of an EFL college reader. Thammasat Review, 7(1), 244-271.
Adunyarittigun, D. (2015). Developing a scale to measure reader self-perception for EFL students. PASAA, 50, 1-30.
Adunyarittigun, D., & Grant, R. (1999, March). Reciprocal teaching, comprehension, and reader self-perception. Paper presented at the 33rd Annual Convention and Exposition TESOL, New York, USA.
Adunyarittigun, D., & Grant, R. (2000, March). Self-perception and reading achievement. Paper presented at the 34th Annual Convention and Exposition TESOL, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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Alkhaleefah, T. A. (2017). Saudi EFL learners’ reported reading problems and strategic processing of text types: a think-aloud case study. Reading Psychology, 38, 687–730. doi:10.1080/02702711.2017.1336660
Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 460-472. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1991.tb05384.x
Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory for personal and social change by enabling media. In A. Singhal, M. J. Cody, E. M. Rogers & R. M. Sabido (Eds.), Entertainment-education and social change: History, research, and practice (pp. 75-96). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Baker, L. (2002). Metacognition in comprehension instruction. In C.C. Block & M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: research-based best practices (pp. 77-95). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Bakhshalinezhad, L., & Nikou, F. R. (2015). Using the think-aloud technique for determining different reading strategies used by Iranian EFL learner. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 6(3), 15-22.
Baumann, J. F., Jones, L. A., & Seifert-Kessell, N. (1993). Using think-alouds to enhance children’s comprehension monitoring abilities. The Reading Teacher, 47(3), 184-193.
Bernhardt, E. (2005). Progress and procrastination in second language reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 133-150. doi:10.1017/s0267190505000073
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Boonkongsaen, N., Sujinpram, N., & Verapreyagoon, J. (2016). English reading strategies used by Thai students with different English exposures from different educational institutions. ABAC Journal, 36(1), 47-67.
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Chamot, A. U. (2005). Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25(1), 112–130. doi:10.1017/S0267190505000061
Chapman, J. W., Tunmer, W. E., & Prochnow, J. E. (2000). Early reading-related skills and performance, reading selfconcept, and the development of academic self-concept: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(4), 703-708. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.92.4.703
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Chumworatayee, T. (2012). Thai Adult EFL Learners’ Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(9), 83-95.
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Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Fives, A. (2016). The association of attitude to reading and reading achievement among a representative sample of nine year olds in Ireland. Reading Psychology, 37(1), 27-54. doi:10.1080/02702711.2014.977983
Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231-235). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fotovatian, S., & Shokrpour, N. (2007). Comparison of the efficiency of reading comprehension strategies on Iranian university students’ comprehension. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 37(2), 47-63. doi:10.1080/10790195.2007.10850197
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Garner, R., & Kraus, K. (1981-1982). Good and poor comprehender differences in knowing and regulating reading behaviors. Educational Research Quarterly, 6(4), 5-12.
Ghaith, G., & El-Sanyoura, H. (2019). Reading comprehension: The mediating role of metacognitive strategies. Reading in a foreign language, 31(1), 19-43.
Ghavamnia, M., Ketabi, S., & Tavakoli, M. (2013). L2 reading strategies used by Iranian EFL learners: A think-aloud study. Reading Psychology, 34, 355-378. doi:10.1080/02702711.2011.640097
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International Bureau of Education. (2020). Key competences/competencies or skills. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-terminology/k/key-competencescompetencies-or-skills
Jimenez, R. T., Garcia, G. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1995). Three children, two languages, and strategic reading: Case studies in bilingual/monolingual reading. American Educational Research Journal, 32(1), 31-61.
Jimenez, R. T., Garcia, G. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1996). The reading strategies of bilingual Laina/o students who are successful English readers: Opportunities and obstacles. Reading Research Quarterly, 31(1), 90-112.
Jou, Y. J. (2015). Investigation of technological university students’ use of metacognitive reading strategies in first and second languages. English Language Teaching, 8(1), 180-188.
Kaniuka, T. S. (2010). Reading achievement, attitude toward reading, and reading self-esteem of historically low achieving students. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 37(2), 184-188.
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Poomarin, W., & Adunyarittigun, D. (2020). The development of an online reader self-perception scale for EFL university students. PASAA, 60, 164-198.
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Salataci, R., & Akyel, A. (2002). Possible effects of strategy instruction on L1 and L2 reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14(1), 1-17.
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Adunyarittigun, D. (2015). Developing a scale to measure reader self-perception for EFL students. PASAA, 50, 1-30.
Adunyarittigun, D., & Grant, R. (1999, March). Reciprocal teaching, comprehension, and reader self-perception. Paper presented at the 33rd Annual Convention and Exposition TESOL, New York, USA.
Adunyarittigun, D., & Grant, R. (2000, March). Self-perception and reading achievement. Paper presented at the 34th Annual Convention and Exposition TESOL, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G. (2008). Clarifying differences between reading skills and reading strategies. The Reading Teacher, 61(5), 364–373. doi:10.1598/RT.61.5.1
Alasuutari, P. (1995). Researching culture: Qualitative method and cultural studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Alkhaleefah, T. A. (2017). Saudi EFL learners’ reported reading problems and strategic processing of text types: a think-aloud case study. Reading Psychology, 38, 687–730. doi:10.1080/02702711.2017.1336660
Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 460-472. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1991.tb05384.x
Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory for personal and social change by enabling media. In A. Singhal, M. J. Cody, E. M. Rogers & R. M. Sabido (Eds.), Entertainment-education and social change: History, research, and practice (pp. 75-96). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Baker, L. (2002). Metacognition in comprehension instruction. In C.C. Block & M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: research-based best practices (pp. 77-95). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Bakhshalinezhad, L., & Nikou, F. R. (2015). Using the think-aloud technique for determining different reading strategies used by Iranian EFL learner. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 6(3), 15-22.
Baumann, J. F., Jones, L. A., & Seifert-Kessell, N. (1993). Using think-alouds to enhance children’s comprehension monitoring abilities. The Reading Teacher, 47(3), 184-193.
Bernhardt, E. (2005). Progress and procrastination in second language reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 133-150. doi:10.1017/s0267190505000073
Bernhardt, E., & Kamil, M., (1995). Interpreting relationships between L1 and L2 reading consolidating the linguistic threshold and the linguistic interdependence hypotheses. Applied Linguistics, 16(1), 15-34. doi:10.1093/applin/16.1.15
Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20(3), 463-494.
Boonkongsaen, N., Sujinpram, N., & Verapreyagoon, J. (2016). English reading strategies used by Thai students with different English exposures from different educational institutions. ABAC Journal, 36(1), 47-67.
Carrell, P. L. (1989). Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. The Modern Language Journal, 73(2), 121-134.
Chamot, A. U. (2005). Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25(1), 112–130. doi:10.1017/S0267190505000061
Chapman, J. W., Tunmer, W. E., & Prochnow, J. E. (2000). Early reading-related skills and performance, reading selfconcept, and the development of academic self-concept: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(4), 703-708. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.92.4.703
Charters, E. (2003). The use of think-aloud methods in qualitative research: An introduction to think-aloud methods. Brock Education, 12(2), 68-82.
Chatupote, M., Qingquan, N., & Teo, A. (2008). A deep look into learning strategy use by successful and unsuccessful students in the Chinese EFL learning context. RELC Journal, 39(3), 338–358.
Chumworatayee, T. (2012). Thai Adult EFL Learners’ Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(9), 83-95.
Cohen, A., & Hosenfeld, C. (1981). Some uses of mentalistic data in second language research. Language Learning, 31(2), 285-313.
Cotterall, S., & Murray, G. (2009). Enhancing metacognitive knowledge: structure, affordances and self. System, 37(1), 34-45. doi:10.1016/j.system.2008.08.003
Creswell, J. W. (2005). Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Davies, J. N., & Bistodeau, L. (1993). How do L1 and L2 reading differ? Evidence from think aloud protocols. Modern Language Journal, 77(4), 459-472.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Fives, A. (2016). The association of attitude to reading and reading achievement among a representative sample of nine year olds in Ireland. Reading Psychology, 37(1), 27-54. doi:10.1080/02702711.2014.977983
Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231-235). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fotovatian, S., & Shokrpour, N. (2007). Comparison of the efficiency of reading comprehension strategies on Iranian university students’ comprehension. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 37(2), 47-63. doi:10.1080/10790195.2007.10850197
Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. R. (2006). Educational research: An introduction (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Garner, R. (1994). Metacognition and executive control. In R. B. Ruddell, M. R. Ruddell & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed., pp. 715-732). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Garner, R., & Kraus, K. (1981-1982). Good and poor comprehender differences in knowing and regulating reading behaviors. Educational Research Quarterly, 6(4), 5-12.
Ghaith, G., & El-Sanyoura, H. (2019). Reading comprehension: The mediating role of metacognitive strategies. Reading in a foreign language, 31(1), 19-43.
Ghavamnia, M., Ketabi, S., & Tavakoli, M. (2013). L2 reading strategies used by Iranian EFL learners: A think-aloud study. Reading Psychology, 34, 355-378. doi:10.1080/02702711.2011.640097
Guo, L. (2018). Modeling the relationship of metacognitive knowledge, L1 reading ability, L2 language proficiency and L2 reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 30(2), 209-231.
Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 403-424). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
International Bureau of Education. (2020). Key competences/competencies or skills. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-terminology/k/key-competencescompetencies-or-skills
Jimenez, R. T., Garcia, G. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1995). Three children, two languages, and strategic reading: Case studies in bilingual/monolingual reading. American Educational Research Journal, 32(1), 31-61.
Jimenez, R. T., Garcia, G. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1996). The reading strategies of bilingual Laina/o students who are successful English readers: Opportunities and obstacles. Reading Research Quarterly, 31(1), 90-112.
Jou, Y. J. (2015). Investigation of technological university students’ use of metacognitive reading strategies in first and second languages. English Language Teaching, 8(1), 180-188.
Kaniuka, T. S. (2010). Reading achievement, attitude toward reading, and reading self-esteem of historically low achieving students. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 37(2), 184-188.
Keene, E. O. (2002). From good to memorable: Characteristics of highly effective comprehension teaching. In C. C. Block, L. B. Gambrell & M. Pressley (Eds.), Improving comprehension instruction: Rethinking research, theory, and classroom practice (pp. 80-105). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Kletzien, S. B. (1991). Strategy use by good and poor comprehenders reading expository text of differing levels. Reading Research Quarterly, 26(1), 67-86.
Koda, K. (2007). Reading and language learning: Cross-linguistic constraints on second language reading development. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell.
Malcolm, D. (2009). Reading strategy awareness of Arabic-speaking medical students studying in English. System, 37(4), 640-651.
McKenna, M. C., & Kear, D. J. (1990). Measuring attitudes toward reading: A new tool for teachers. The Reading Teacher, 43(9), 626–639.
McKenna, M. C., & Kear, D. J. (1999). Garfield revisited: Unlimited extension of permission to copy the ERAS. Reading Teacher, 53(3), 244.
Morgan, P. L., & Fuchs, D. (2007). Is there a bidirectional relationship between children’s reading skills and reading motivation? Exceptional Children, 73(2), 165-183.
Mokhtari, K., & Sheorey, R. C. (2002). Measuring E SL students’ awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Developmental Education, 25(3), 2-11.
OECD. (2019). PISA 2018 results: What students know and can do (Vol.1). Retrieved from https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5f07c754-en.pdf?expires=1593158024&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=C4A3A2CD71577727400B778FF96BE21C
Oranpattanachai, P. (2010). Perceived reading strategies used by Thai Pre-engineering students. ABAC Journal, 30(2), 26-42.
Oster, L. (2001). Using the think-aloud for reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, 55(1), 64-69.
Osuji, C. J. (2017). Cognitive and metacognitive strategy use in first and second language reading comprehension. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Essex, UK.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Palincsar, A. S. (1982). Improving the reading comprehension of junior high students through the reciprocal teaching of comprehension-monitoring strategies. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA.
Parera, M. T. (2006). Reading strategies and strategy awareness in 3 EFL educated readers of English literary texts. Atlantis, 28(2), 69-87.
Paris, S. G., & Meyers, M. (1981). Comprehension monitoring, memory, and study strategies of good and poor readers. Journal of Reading Behavior, 13(1), 5-22.
Paris, S. G., Wasik, B., & Turner, J. C. (1991). The development of strategic readers. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 609–640). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Poomarin, W., & Adunyarittigun, D. (2020). The development of an online reader self-perception scale for EFL university students. PASAA, 60, 164-198.
Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Pressley, M. & Hilden, K. (2004). Verbal protocols in reading. In N. K. Duke & M. H. Mallette (Eds.), Literacy research methodologies (pp. 308–321). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Pritchard, R. (1990). The evolution of introspection methodology and its implications for studying the reading process. Reading Psychology: An International Quarterly, 11(1), 1-13.
Salataci, R., & Akyel, A. (2002). Possible effects of strategy instruction on L1 and L2 reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14(1), 1-17.
Sariçoban, A., & Behjoo, B. M. (2017). Metacognitive awareness of Turkish EFL learners on reading strategies. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 21(1), 159-172.
Schleicher, A. (2019). PISA 2018: Insights and interpretations. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/ PISA%202018%20Insights%20and%20Interpretations%20FINAL%20PDF.pdf
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2007). Influencing children’s self-efficacy and self-regulation of reading and writing through modeling. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 23(1), 7-25.
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