A Study of Gender Role Patterns and a Comparison of Defense Mechanisms Related to Happiness
Keywords:
Gender Roles, Happiness Levels, Maladaptive Defense Styles, Mature Defense Styles, University StudentsAbstract
The objectives of this research are to study the effects of gender roles and defensive styles on happiness. The sample comprised 389 teaching students selected using multi-stage random sampling. The instruments consisted of 3 questionnaires: the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Defense Mechanism Rating Scale (DMRS-SR30), and Thai happiness indicators (THI-15), with reliability coefficients ranging from .753 to .861. Statistical analyses were tested by mean, MANOVA, and binary logistic regression. The results revealed that 1) the defensive styles that teaching students mostly used were mature defences.
2) The students with androgynous males received the highest scores for both mature and maladaptive defenses, with significantly different scores from all other gender roles in mature defenses, while having different scores when compared to feminine males, feminine females, undifferentiated males, and undifferentiated females in maladaptive styles. 3) androgynous males had the highest happiness score and had significantly higher scores than undifferentiated females, masculine females, and undifferentiatedmales. 4) Mature styles support an increase in happiness, whereas maladaptive defenses reduce happiness.
5) All independent variables could predict a 23.7% happiness level, with the corrective prediction for high happiness better than low happiness. Overall, the logistic equation had a corrective prediction at a happiness level of 72.8%.
References
Balikci, A., Erdem, M., Bolu, A., Oznur, T., & Celik, C. (2014). Defense mechanisms in endogenous depression. Gülhane Tip Dergisi, 56(3), 154-158.
Basiaux, P., Le Bon, O., Dramaix, M., Massat, I., Souery, D., Mendlewicz, J., Pelc, I, Verbanck, P. (2001). Temperament and character inventory (TCI) personality profile and sub-typing in alcoholic patients: A controlled study. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 36(6), 584-587.
Batz, C., & Tay, L. (2018). Gender differences in subjective well-being. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of well-being. Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Publishers. DOI: nobascholar.com.
Baykara, S., & Alban, K. (2018). The relationship between self-harming behavior, suicide attempt history and defense mechanisms in patients with opioid-use disorder. Düşünen Adam: Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences, 31(3), 265–273. https://doi.org/10.5350/DAJPN20183
Bedel, A. (2019). The role of interpersonal problem solving in using the immature defense mechanisms in adolescents. Universitas Psychologica, 18(5), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy18-5.rips
Beltz, A. M., Loviska, A. M., & Weigard, A. (2021). Daily gender expression is associated with psychological adjustment for some people, but mainly men. Scientific Reporcats, 11(1), 9114. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-88279-4.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical psychology, 42(2), 155-162. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036215
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender Schema Theory: A Cognitive Account of Sex Typing. Psychological Review. 88, 354–364. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295X.88.4.354.
Boos de Quadros, C. M., Augusto Patricio, G., Sérgio Reinert, P., & Schmitt Miranda, C. M. (2023). Subjective well-being in college students: Determining factors and implications for academic management. Revista Alcance, 30(3), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.14210/alcance.v30n3
Burns, R. A., & Crisp, D. A. (2022). Prioritizing Happiness has Important Implications for Mental Health, but Perhaps Only if you Already are Happy. Applied Research Quality Life, 17, 375–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09891-6
Carver, L. F., Vafaei, A., Guerra, R., Freire, A., & Phillips, S. P. (2013). Gender differences: examination of the 12-item bem sex role inventory (BSRI-12) in an older Brazilian population. PLoS One, 8(10), e76356. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076356.
Corruble, E., Bronnec, M., Falissard, B., & Hardy, P. (2004). Defense styles in depressed suicide attempters. Psychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences, 58(3), 285-288. https://doi.org/10.11111/j.1440-1819.2004.01233.x
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Psychologie canadienne, 49(3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801
Denny, K. G., & Steiner, H. (2009). External and internal factors influencing happiness in Elite collegiate athletes. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 40(1), 55-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-008-0111-z
Diener, E. (2013). The remarkable changes in the science of subjective well-being. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6), 663-666.
Drapeau, M., Thompson, K., Petraglia, J., Thygesen, K. L., & Lecours, S. (2011). Defense mechanisms and gender: An examination of two models of defensive functioning derived from the Defense Style Questionnaire. International Journal of Psychology & Psychological Therapy, 11(1), 149–155.
Gökdag, R. (2015). Defense mechanisms used by university students to cope with stress. International journal on new trends in education and their implications, 6(2), 1-12.
Gould, K. H. (1988). Old wine in new bottles: A feminist perspective on Gilligan's theory. Social Work, 33(5), 411-415.
Inthapat, T. B. (2020). Conceptual framework of stress during teacher practice training among student teachers. Journal of Education Studies, 48(4), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.58837/Chula.Educu.48.4.9
Jahanbakhsh, S., Jomehri, F., & Mujembari, A. K. (2015). The Comparison of Women's Self Confidence in Base of Gender Role. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 191, 2285-2290.
Juni, S., & Grimm, D. W. (1994). Sex roles as factors in defense mechanisms and object relations. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 155(1), 99-106. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1994.9914762
Kammann, R., Farry, M., & Herbison, P. (1984). The analysis and measurement of happiness as a sense of well-being. Social Indicators Research, 15(2), 91–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00426282
Kitrungroj, N. (2023). Mental health status and self-worth of undergraduate students in the Faculty of Education, Suan Dusit University. Master of Science Thesis in Mental Health, Chulalongkorn University.
Krahé, B. (2018). Gendered self-concept and the aggressive expression of driving anger: Positive femininity buffers negative masculinity. Sex Roles, 79(1-2), 98-108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0853-9
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607-610.
Lenney E. (1991) Sex role: The measurement of masculinity, femininity and androgyny. In: JP RobinsonPR ShaverLS Wrightsman. Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes, Vol. 1. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 573-660.
Lyke, J. (2016). Defense style predicts subjective well-being in a non-clinical sample. The Journal of Happiness & Well-being, 4(1), 62-71.
Mahalik, J. R., Cournoyer, R.J., DeFranc, W., Cherry, M., & Napolitano, J.M. (1998). Men’s gender role conflict and use of psychological defenses. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45(3),247-255. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.45.3.247
Mateo, M. A., & Fernández, J. (1991). La dimensionalidad de los conceptos de masculinidad y feminidad. Investigaciones Psicológicas, 9, 95-116.
Martinez, D. (2020). Eudaimonic and hedonic wellbeing among Bangkokians: a qualitative study of Maslow’s needs, intrinsic and extrinsic values. Asean Journal of Management & Innovation, 7(2), 17-47. https://doi.org/10.14456/ajmi.2020.13
Matud, M. P. (2019). Masculine/instrumental and feminine/expressive traits and health, wellbeing, and psychological distress in Spanish men. American Journal of Men's Health, 13(1), Article 1557988319832749. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988319832749
Mongkol, A., Hattaphanom, R., Chetchotisak, P., Chalorkul, W., & Punyayai, L. (2001). The study of Thai mental health index (individual level). Khon Kaen: Klang Nana Wittaya.
Mostowik, J., Mielimaka, M., Rutkowski, K., & Ostrowski, T. (2022). Time in the mental health context: Neurotic symptomatology, defense mechanisms and the perception of time perspective among patients diagnosed with neurotic and personality disorders-A Clinical study. Psychological Reports, 125(1), 232-255. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294120978164
Mousavi, A., Mousavi, M. V., & Yaghubi, H. (2017). Defense mechanisms in psychological health and sport success of athletes. Journal of Kerman University of Medical Sciences, 24(5), 379-388.
Nikolaev, E. L., Baranova, E. A., & Hartfelder, D. V. (2017). Androgyny in dentists: The contribution of masculinity and femininity to mental health and well-being. Psychology in Russia, 10(2), 117-133. https://doi.org/10.11621/PIR.2017.0208
Parekh, M. A., Majeed, H., Khan, T. R., Khan, A. B., Khalid, S., Khwaja, N. M., Khalid, R, Jehan, Khan, M. A., Rizqui, I. M., Jehan, I. (2010). Ego defense mechanisms in Pakistani medical students: a cross sectional analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 10, 12-19. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-10-12
Pawlaczyk, M., Siembida, J., Balaj, K., & Rajewska-Rager, A. (2020). The assessment of stress level, anxiety, depressive symptoms, and defense mechanisms among Polish and English medical students. Annals of General Psychiatry, 19, Article 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-020-00274-7
Pietraszkiewicz, A., Kaufmann, M. C., & Formanowicz, M. (2017). Masculinity ideology and subjective well-being in a sample of Polish men and women. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 48(1), 79-86. https://doi.org/10.1515/ppb-2017-0010
Public Health. (2022, April 28). Within the past 4 years, Thailand has met an increase 4 times of suicides that are higher in adolescents than working age people, Krungthep Thurakit, 1. https://www.bangkokbiznews.com/social/1001472
Ratanasiripong, P., Siri, S., Hanklang, S., Chumchai, P., & Galvan, F. (2024). Factors related to mental health and quality of life among college and university teaching professionals in Thailand. Thai Journal of Public Health, 54(1), 828-845.
Savina, M., Antonovych, M., Gorova, O., Shevchenko, L., & Melnychuk, T. (2022). Peculiarities of defense mechanisms and personal maturity in different women’s sex-role types with signs of exercise addiction. Neuropsychology, 17(1-2), 58-65. https://doi.org/10.5114/nan.2022.117957
Šnele, M. S., Todorović, J., & Komlenić, M. (2020). Gender roles and dimensions of family functioning as predictors of subjective well-being in men and women. Teme-Časopis za Društvene Nauke, 681-701.
Sterner, T. R., Gudmundsson, P., Falk, H., Seidu, N., Ahlner, F., Wetterberg, H., Rydén, L., Sigström, R., Östling, S., Zettergren, A., Kern, S., Waern, M., Skoog, I. (2020). Depression in relation to sex and gender expression among Swedish septuagenarians: Results from the H70 study. PLoS ONE, 15(9), e0238701. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238701
Surapolchai, P. (2023). The survey of university student’s health behavior (Research report). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Social Research Institute.
Taghdisi Heydarian, S. M. (2022). Comparing brain behavioral systems, defense mechanisms, and cognitive-emotional regulation in patients with type I bipolar disorder and normal individuals. Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health, 24(4), 281-290.
TCIJ Publication Department. (2023, February 6). ‘Stress and depression’ are the first urgent problems of Thai students. Breaking News, TCIJ makes the truth appear. https://www.tcijthai.com/news/2023/06/scoop/12765
Thanasupawat, B., Rojanamiti, S., Jaikaew, S., & Srirattanaball, J. (2025). Factors influencing stress and stress management among Bachelor of Education students, Faculty of Education, Uttaradit Rajabhat University. Journal of Dhamma for Life, 31(3), 321-339.
Tsirigotis, K. (2018). Indirect self-destructiveness in individuals with schizophrenia. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 40(1), 41-47. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2016-2012
Yazhen, Z., Onyon, N., Kochasit, S., & Charoontham, O. (2023). Factors affecting the stress management ability of college students. International Journal of Sociologies and Anthropologies Science Reviews (IJSASR), 3(3), 65-76. https://doi.org/10.14456/jsasr.2023.35
Ziadni, M. S., Jasinski, M. J., Labouvie-Vief, G., & Lumley, M. A. (2017). Alexithymia, defenses, and ego strength: Cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships with psychological well-being and depression. Journal of Happiness Studies, 18(6), 1799–1813. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9800-7
